A review on the pathogenesis of cutaneous non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) and selected herbs as chemoprotective agents

Abstract

The high incidence of NMSC (non-melanoma skin cancer) and the side effects of the available treatments disrupt the quality of life in more than one way. Particularly in the later stages, pain management and palliative care is the sole mean of alleviating the agony, all this warrants the need for alternative strategies with enhanced efficacy, better tolerance, and wide safety margins. Therefore, herbs in NMSC prevention and intervention are engaging due to their accessibility, efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and tolerated nature. Various components in the crude extracts follow 'Pharmacodynamic synergy', augment the beneficial effects of the active constituents, and reduce the likelihood of drug resistance. The extracts/active constituents of Azadirachta indica , Catharanthus roseus , Ocimum sanctum , Phyllanthus emblica , Santalum album , Tinospora cordifolia , and Withania somnifera demonstrated the anti-cancerous effect on distinct cancerous cells and animal models. Nonetheless, there is a lack of in vivo investigations validating its chemopreventive efficacy in experimental models of skin carcinogenesis. Therefore, the current review suggests the scientific community emphasize the extensive research on these herbs to obtain an efficacious drug as well as the people around the globe incorporate these herbs in their daily dietary habits/meals to obtain maximum benefit from these herbs.

Keywords

References

1. Ahmad, B., Hafeez, N., Rauf, A., Bashir, S., Linfang, H., Rehman, M. U., Mubarak, M. S., Uddin, M. S., Bawazeer, S., et al. (2021). Phyllanthus emblica: A comprehensive review of its therapeutic benefits. South African Journal of Botany, 138, 278-310.
2. Akihisa, T., Noto, T., Takahashi, A., Fujita, Y., Banno, N., Tokuda, H., Koike, K., Suzuki, T., Yasukawa, K., et al. (2009). Melanogenesis inhibitory, anti-inflammatory, and chemopreventive effects of limonoids from the seeds of Azadirachta indicia A. Juss.(neem). Journal of Oleo Science, 58(11), 581-594.
3. Akihisa, T., Takahashi, A., Kikuchi, T., Takagi, M., Watanabe, K., Fukatsu, M., Fujita, Y., Banno, N., Tokuda, H., et al. (2011). The melanogenesis-inhibitory, anti-inflammatory, and chemopreventive effects of limonoids in n-hexane extract of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.(neem) seeds. Journal of Oleo Science, 60(2), 53-59.
4. Ali, H., & Dixit, S. (2013). Extraction optimization of Tinospora cordifolia and assessment of the anticancer activity of its alkaloid palmatine. The Scientific World Journal, 2013, 376216.
5. Ali, H., Dixit, S., Ali, D., Alqahtani, S. M., Alkahtani, S., & Alarifi, S. (2015). Isolation and evaluation of anticancer efficacy of stigmasterol in a mouse model of DMBA-induced skin carcinoma. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 9, 2793.
6. Alzohairy, M. A. (2016). Therapeutics role of Azadirachta indica (Neem) and their active constituents in diseases prevention and treatment. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2016, 7382506.
7. Anquez-Traxler, C. (2011). The legal and regulatory framework of herbal medicinal products in the European Union: a focus on the traditional herbal medicines category. Drug Information Journal, 45(1), 15-23.
8. Apalla, Z., Nashan, D., Weller, R. B., & Castellsagué, X. (2017). Skin cancer: epidemiology, disease burden, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and therapeutic approaches. Dermatology and Therapy, 7(1), 5-19.
9. Arasada, B. L., Bommareddy, A., Zhang, X., Bremmon, K., & Dwivedi, C. (2008). Effects of α-santalol on proapoptotic caspases and p53 expression in UVB irradiated mouse skin. Anticancer Research, 28(1A), 129-132.
10. Arora, N., Bansal, M., & Koul, A. (2011a). Azadirachta indica exerts chemopreventive action against murine skin cancer: studies on histopathological, ultrastructural changes and modulation of NF-κB, AP-1, and STAT1. Oncology Research Featuring Preclinical and Clinical Cancer Therapeutics, 19(5), 179-191.
11. Arora, N., Bansal, M., & Koul, A. (2013). Azadirachta indica acts as a pro‐oxidant and modulates cell cycle associated proteins during DMBA/TPA induced skin carcinogenesis in mice. Cell Biochemistry and Function, 31(5), 385-394.
12. Arora, N., & Koul, A. (2014). A ‘complex solution’to a ‘complex’problem. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 23(6), 568-578.
13. Arora, N., Koul, A., & Bansal, M. (2011b). Chemopreventive activity of Azadirachta indica on two‐stage skin carcinogenesis in murine model. Phytotherapy Research, 25(3), 408-416.
14. Birt, D. F., Mitchell, D., Gold, B., Pour, P., & Pinch, H. C. (1997). Inhibition of ultraviolet light induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice by apigenin, a plant flavonoid. Anticancer Research, 17(1A), 85-91.
15. Boeckmann, L., Martens, M. C., & Emmert, S. (2020). Molecular biology of basal and squamous cell carcinomas. Sunlight, Vitamin D and Skin Cancer, 1268, 171-191.
16. Bommareddy, A., Brozena, S., Steigerwalt, J., Landis, T., Hughes, S., Mabry, E., Knopp, A., VanWert, A. L., & Dwivedi, C. (2019). Medicinal properties of alpha-santalol, a naturally occurring constituent of sandalwood oil. Natural Product Research, 33(4), 527-543.
17. Bommareddy, A., Hora, J., Cornish, B., & Dwivedi, C. (2007). Chemoprevention by α-santalol on UVB radiation-induced skin tumor development in mice. Anticancer Research, 27(4B), 2185-2188.
18. Bray, F., Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Siegel, R. L., Torre, L. A., & Jemal, A. (2018). Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 68(6), 394-424.
19. Byun, S., Lee, K. W., Jung, S. K., Lee, E. J., Hwang, M. K., Lim, S. H., Bode, A. M., Lee, H. J., & Dong, Z. (2010). Luteolin inhibits protein kinase Cϵ and c-Src activities and UVB-induced skin cancer. Cancer Research, 70(6), 2415-2423.
20. Chaiprasongsuk, A., & Panich, U. (2022). Role of Phytochemicals in Skin Photoprotection via Regulation of Nrf2. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, 823881.
21. Chaudhary, R., Jahan, S., & Goyal, P. K. (2008). Chemopreventive potential of an Indian medicinal plant (Tinospora cordifolia) on skin carcinogenesis in mice. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 27(3), 233-243.
22. Chilampalli, C., Zhang, X., Kaushik, R. S., Young, A., Zeman, D., Hildreth, M. B., Fahmy, H., & Dwivedi, C. (2013). Chemopreventive effects of combination of honokiol and magnolol with α-santalol on skin cancer developments. Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics, 7(3), 109-115.
23. Chugh, N., & Koul, A. (2021). Altered presence of extra cellular matrix components in murine skin cancer: Modulation by Azadirachta indica leaf extract. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 11(3), 197-208.
24. Chugh, N. A., Bansal, M. P., & Koul, A. (2018). The effect of Azadirachta indica leaf extract on early stages of chemically induced skin cancer in mice. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 24(3), 257-271.
25. Cives, M., Mannavola, F., Lospalluti, L., Sergi, M. C., Cazzato, G., Filoni, E., Cavallo, F., Giudice, G., Stucci, L. S., et al. (2020). Non-melanoma skin cancers: Biological and clinical features. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(15), 5394.
26. Dasgupta, T., Banerjee, S., Yadava, P., & Rao, A. (2004a). Chemopreventive potential of Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaf extract in murine carcinogenesis model systems. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 92(1), 23-36.
27. Dasgupta, T., Rao, A., & Yadava, P. (2004b). Chemomodulatory efficacy of basil leaf (Ocimum basilicum) on drug metabolizing and antioxidant enzymes, and on carcinogen-induced skin and forestomach papillomagenesis. Phytomedicine, 11(2-3), 139-151.
28. Davis, L., & Kuttan, G. (2001). Effect of Withania somnifera on DMBA induced carcinogenesis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 75(2-3), 165-168.
29. Deng, G., & Cassileth, B. (2013). Complementary or alternative medicine in cancer care—myths and realities. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, 10(11), 656-664.
30. Dickinson, S. E., Olson, E. R., Levenson, C., Janda, J., Rusche, J. J., Alberts, D. S., & Bowden, G. T. (2014). A novel chemopreventive mechanism for a traditional medicine: East Indian sandalwood oil induces autophagy and cell death in proliferating keratinocytes. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 558, 143-152.
31. Didona, D., Paolino, G., Bottoni, U., & Cantisani, C. (2018). Non melanoma skin cancer pathogenesis overview. Biomedicines, 6(1), 6.
32. Dwivedi, C., & Abu-Ghazaleh, A. (1997). Chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil on skin papillomas in mice. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 6(4), 399-401.
33. Dwivedi, C., Guan, X., Harmsen, W. L., Voss, A. L., Goetz-Parten, D. E., Koopman, E. M., Johnson, K. M., Valluri, H. B., & Matthees, D. P. (2003). Chemopreventive effects of α-santalol on skin tumor development in CD-1 and SENCAR mice. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 12(2), 151-156.
34. Dwivedi, C., Valluri, H. B., Guan, X., & Agarwal, R. (2006). Chemopreventive effects of α-santalol on ultraviolet B radiation-induced skin tumor development in SKH-1 hairless mice. Carcinogenesis, 27(9), 1917-1922.
35. Dwivedi, C., & Zhang, Y. (1999). Sandalwood oil prevents skin tumour development in CD1 mice. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 8(5), 449-455.
36. F'guyer, S., Afaq, F., & Mukhtar, H. (2003). Photochemoprevention of skin cancer by botanical agents. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, 19(2), 56-72.
37. Fitzmaurice, C., Allen, C., Barber, R. M., Barregard, L., Bhutta, Z. A., Brenner, H., Dicker, D. J., Chimed-Orchir, O., Dandona, R., et al. (2017). Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 32 cancer groups, 1990 to 2015: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study. JAMA Oncology, 3(4), 524-548.
38. Fujii, T., Okuda, T., Yasui, N., Wakaizumi, M., Ikami, T., & Ikeda, K. (2013). Effects of amla extract and collagen peptide on UVB-induced photoaging in hairless mice. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(1), 451-459.
39. Fujii, T., Wakaizumi, M., Ikami, T., & Saito, M. (2008). Amla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) extract promotes procollagen production and inhibits matrix metalloproteinase-1 in human skin fibroblasts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 119(1), 53-57.
40. Gan, C., Zi, C., Sheng, J., Wang, X., & Xu, H. (2021). Recent Advances on Anti-skin Cancer Activity of Phytochemicals and Underlying Molecular Mechanisms. Medicine Research, 5(2), 210006.
41. George, B., Chandran, R., & Abrahamse, H. (2021). Role of Phytochemicals in Cancer Chemoprevention: Insights. Antioxidants (Basel), 10(9), 1455.
42. Gordon, L. G., Elliott, T. M., Olsen, C. M., Pandeya, N., & Whiteman, D. C. (2018). Multiplicity of skin cancers in Queensland and their cost burden to government and patients. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 42(1), 86-91.
43. Goswami, N. B., & Tah, J. (2018). White sandal (Santalum album L.), a precious medicinal and timber yielding plant: a short review. Plant Archives, 18(1), 1048-1056.
44. Goyal, P., Chaudhary, R., Jahan, S., & Gupta, U. (2007). Chemo preventive efficacy of tinospora cordifolia (a medicinal plant) against chemical induced skin papillomagenesis in mice. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 16(12_Supplement), B5-B5.
45. Guldiken, B., Ozkan, G., Catalkaya, G., Ceylan, F. D., Yalcinkaya, I. E., & Capanoglu, E. (2018). Phytochemicals of herbs and spices: Health versus toxicological effects. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 119, 37-49.
46. Gupta, A. K., Bharadwaj, M., & Mehrotra, R. (2016). Skin cancer concerns in people of color: risk factors and prevention. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 17(12), 5257-5264.
47. Hussain, S. A., Panjagari, N. R., Singh, R., & Patil, G. (2015). Potential herbs and herbal nutraceuticals: food applications and their interactions with food components. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 55(1), 94-122.
48. Ijaz, S., Akhtar, N., Khan, M. S., Hameed, A., Irfan, M., Arshad, M. A., Ali, S., & Asrar, M. (2018). Plant derived anticancer agents: A green approach towards skin cancers. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 103, 1643-1651.
49. Kan, Z., Jaiswal, B. S., Stinson, J., Janakiraman, V., Bhatt, D., Stern, H. M., Yue, P., Haverty, P. M., Bourgon, R., et al. (2010). Diverse somatic mutation patterns and pathway alterations in human cancers. Nature, 466(7308), 869-873.
50. Katalinic, A., Kunze, U., & Schäfer, T. (2003). Epidemiology of cutaneous melanoma and non‐melanoma skin cancer in Schleswig‐Holstein, Germany: incidence, clinical subtypes, tumour stages and localization (epidemiology of skin cancer). British Journal of Dermatology, 149(6), 1200-1206.
51. Katta, R., & Brown, D. N. (2015). Diet and skin cancer: The potential role of dietary antioxidants in nonmelanoma skin cancer prevention. Journal of Skin Cancer, 2015, 893149.
52. Kaur, G., Athar, M., & Alam, M. S. (2010). Eugenol precludes cutaneous chemical carcinogenesis in mouse by preventing oxidative stress and inflammation and by inducing apoptosis. Molecular Carcinogenesis: Published in Cooperation with the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 49(3), 290-301.
53. Kaur, M., Agarwal, C., Singh, R. P., Guan, X., Dwivedi, C., & Agarwal, R. (2005). Skin cancer chemopreventive agent, α-santalol, induces apoptotic death of human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells via caspase activation together with dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release. Carcinogenesis, 26(2), 369-380.
54. Khan, A., Ahmad, A., Akhtar, F., Yousuf, S., Xess, I., Khan, L. A., & Manzoor, N. (2010). Ocimum sanctum essential oil and its active principles exert their antifungal activity by disrupting ergosterol biosynthesis and membrane integrity. Research in Microbiology, 161(10), 816-823.
55. Khan, S., Ikram, M., & Faisal, M. (2021). Commercial, Cosmetic, and Medicinal Importance of Sandal (Santalum album): A Valuable Forest Resource. In Non-Timber Forest Products (pp. 129-144): Springer.
56. Koh, D., Wang, H., Lee, J., Chia, K., Lee, H., & Goh, C. (2003). Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma of the skin: analysis of the Singapore Cancer Registry data 1968–97. British Journal of Dermatology, 148(6), 1161-1166.
57. Koul, A., Ghara, A. R., & Gangar, S. C. (2006). Chemomodulatory effects of Azadirachta indica on the hepatic status of skin tumor bearing mice. Phytotherapy Research, 20(3), 169-177.
58. Kumar, A. A., Joshi, G., & Ram, H. M. (2012). Sandalwood: history, uses, present status and the future. Current Science, 103(12), 1408-1416.
59. Labani, S., Asthana, S., Rathore, K., & Sardana, K. (2021). Incidence of melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers in Indian and the global regions. Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics, 17(4), 906-911.
60. Lauth, M., Unden, A. B., & Toftgård, R. (2004). Non-melanoma skin cancer: pathogenesis and mechanisms. Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms, 1(2), 267-272.
61. Lee, D. A., & Miller, S. J. (2009). Nonmelanoma skin cancer. Facial Plastic Surgery Clinics of North America, 17(3), 309-324.
62. Leiter, U., Keim, U., Eigentler, T., Katalinic, A., Holleczek, B., Martus, P., & Garbe, C. (2017). Incidence, mortality, and trends of nonmelanoma skin cancer in Germany. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 137(9), 1860-1867.
63. Lengai, G. M., Muthomi, J. W., & Mbega, E. R. (2020). Phytochemical activity and role of botanical pesticides in pest management for sustainable agricultural crop production. Scientific African, 7, e00239.
64. Li, W., Zhang, C., Du, H., Huang, V., Sun, B., Harris, J. P., Richardson, Q., Shen, X., Jin, R., et al. (2016). Withaferin A suppresses the up‐regulation of acetyl‐coA carboxylase 1 and skin tumor formation in a skin carcinogenesis mouse model. Molecular Carcinogenesis, 55(11), 1739-1746.
65. Li, W., & Zhao, Y. (2013). Withaferin A suppresses tumor promoter 12‐O‐tetradecanoylphorbol 13‐acetate‐induced decreases in isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 activity and mitochondrial function in skin epidermal JB 6 cells. Cancer Science, 104(2), 143-148.
66. Majeed, M., Bhat, B., Anand, S., Sivakumar, A., Paliwal, P., & Geetha, K. (2011). Inhibition of UV-induced ROS and collagen damage by Phyllanthus emblica extract in normal human dermal fibroblasts. Journal of Cosmetic Science, 62(1), 49-56.
67. Maliyakkal, N., Appadath Beeran, A., Balaji, S. A., Udupa, N., Ranganath Pai, S., & Rangarajan, A. (2015). Effects of Withania somnifera and Tinospora cordifolia extracts on the side population phenotype of human epithelial cancer cells: toward targeting multidrug resistance in cancer. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 14(2), 156-171.
68. Mandal, A. K., Poudel, M., Neupane, N. P., & Verma, A. (2022). Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Applications of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi): Springer Link.
69. Mandlik, D. S., & Namdeo, A. G. (2021). Immunomodulators and Phytodrugs. In Evidence Based Validation of Traditional Medicines (pp. 901-920): Springer.
70. Marwat, S. K., Khan, M. S., Ghulam, S., Anwar, N., Mustafa, G., & Usman, K. (2011). Phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of sweet Basil-Ocimum basilicum L.(Lamiaceae). Asian Journal of Chemistry, 23(9), 3773.
71. Mathur, S., Kaur, P., Sharma, M., Katyal, A., Singh, B., Tiwari, M., & Chandra, R. (2004). The treatment of skin carcinoma, induced by UV B radiation, using 1-oxo-5β, 6β-epoxy-witha-2-enolide, isolated from the roots of Withania somnifera, in a rat model. Phytomedicine, 11(5), 452-460.
72. Mehmood, M. H., Siddiqi, H. S., & Gilani, A. H. (2011). The antidiarrheal and spasmolytic activities of Phyllanthus emblica are mediated through dual blockade of muscarinic receptors and Ca2+ channels. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 133(2), 856-865.
73. Millsop, J. W., Sivamani, R. K., & Fazel, N. (2013). Botanical agents for the treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Dermatology Research and Practice, 2013, 837152.
74. Naja, F., Fadel, R. A., Alameddine, M., Aridi, Y., Zarif, A., Hariri, D., Mugharbel, A., Khalil, M., Nahleh, Z., et al. (2015). Complementary and alternative medicine use and its association with quality of life among Lebanese breast cancer patients: a cross-sectional study. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 15(1), 1-10.
75. Nayak, B., & Pinto Pereira, L. M. (2006). Catharanthus roseus flower extract has wound-healing activity in Sprague Dawley rats. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6(1), 1-6.
76. Padmavathi, B., Rath, P. C., Rao, A. R., & Singh, R. P. (2005). Roots of Withania somnifera inhibit forestomach and skin carcinogenesis in mice. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2(1), 99-105.
77. Pham, H. N. T., Sakoff, J. A., Van Vuong, Q., Bowyer, M. C., & Scarlett, C. J. (2018). Screening phytochemical content, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don stem extract and its fractions. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 16, 405-411.
78. Pham, H. N. T., Sakoff, J. A., Vuong, Q. V., Bowyer, M. C., & Scarlett, C. J. (2019). Phytochemical, antioxidant, anti-proliferative and antimicrobial properties of Catharanthus roseus root extract, saponin-enriched and aqueous fractions. Molecular Biology Reports, 46(3), 3265-3273.
79. Prakash, J., Gupta, S. K., & Dinda, A. K. (2002). Withania somnifera root extract prevents DMBA-induced squamous cell carcinoma of skin in Swiss albino mice. Nutrition and Cancer, 42(1), 91-97.
80. Prashar, R., & Kumar, A. (1995). Chemopreventive action of Ocimum sanctum on 2, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene DMBA-induced papillomagenesis in the skin of mice. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 33(3), 181-187.
81. Prashar, R., Kumar, A., Banerjee, S., & Rao, A. (1994). Chemopreventive action by an extract from Ocimum sanctum on mouse skin papillomagenesis and its enhancement of skin glutathione S-transferase activity and acid soluble sulfydryl level. Anti-Cancer Drugs, 5(5), 567-572.
82. Queen, L. (2017). Skin cancer: causes, prevention, and treatment. (Senior Honors Theses). Liberty University, (648).
83. Rastogi, S., Shukla, Y., Paul, B. N., Chowdhuri, D. K., Khanna, S. K., & Das, M. (2007). Protective effect of Ocimum sanctum on 3-methylcholanthrene, 7, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene and aflatoxin B1 induced skin tumorigenesis in mice. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 224(3), 228-240.
84. Rees, J. R., Zens, M. S., Gui, J., Celaya, M. O., Riddle, B. L., & Karagas, M. R. (2014). Non melanoma skin cancer and subsequent cancer risk. PloS One, 9(6), e99674.
85. Rezadoost, M. H., Kumleh, H. H., & Ghasempour, A. (2019). Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction in breast cancer, skin cancer and glioblastoma cells by plant extracts. Molecular Biology Reports, 46(5), 5131-5142.
86. Sancheti, G., Jindal, A., Kumari, R., & Goyal, P. (2005). Chemopreventive action of Emblica officinalis on skin carcinogenesis in mice. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 6(2), 197-201.
87. Santha, S., & Dwivedi, C. (2015). Anticancer effects of sandalwood (Santalum album). Anticancer Research, 35(6), 3137-3145.
88. Seite, S., Del Marmol, V., Moyal, D., & Friedman, A. (2017). Public primary and secondary skin cancer prevention, perceptions and knowledge: an international cross‐sectional survey. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 31(5), 815-820.
89. Singh, E., Sharma, S., Pareek, A., Dwivedi, J., Yadav, S., & Sharma, S. (2012). Phytochemistry, traditional uses and cancer chemopreventive activity of Amla (Phyllanthus emblica): The Sustainer. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 2(1), 176-183.
90. Sloan, F. A., & Gelband, H. (2007). Defining resource-level-appropriate cancer control. In Cancer Control Opportunities in Low-and Middle-Income Countries: National Academies Press (US).
91. Sobanko, J. F., Sarwer, D. B., Zvargulis, Z., & Miller, C. J. (2015). Importance of physical appearance in patients with skin cancer. Dermatologic Surgery, 41(2), 183-188.
92. Stoj, V., Shahriari, N., Shao, K., & Feng, H. (2022). Nutrition and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Clinics in Dermatology, 40(2), 173-185.
93. Sukumaran, K., Unnikrishnan, M., & Kuttan, R. (1994). Inhibition of tumour promotion in mice by eugenol. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 38(4), 306-308.
94. Sung, H., Ferlay, J., Siegel, R. L., Laversanne, M., Soerjomataram, I., Jemal, A., & Bray, F. (2021). Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 71(3), 209-249.
95. Thomasset, S. C., Berry, D. P., Garcea, G., Marczylo, T., Steward, W. P., & Gescher, A. J. (2007). Dietary polyphenolic phytochemicals—promising cancer chemopreventive agents in humans? A review of their clinical properties. International Journal of Cancer, 120(3), 451-458.
96. Treichel, T. L. E., do Prado, T. D., do Amaral, A. S. Z., de Sousa Gomes, Y., da Rocha Pinto, L., Martins, G. T., Martins, A. T., & Cagnini, D. Q. (2020). Use of Ointment or Aqueous Extract of Neem (Azadirachta indica) for the Repair of Experimental Skin Lesions in Sheep. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 11(5), 100290.
97. Upadhyay, A. K., Kumar, K., Kumar, A., & Mishra, H. S. (2010). Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. and Thoms.(Guduchi)–validation of the Ayurvedic pharmacology through experimental and clinical studies. International Journal of Ayurveda Research, 1(2), 112-121.
98. Van Dross, R. T., Hong, X., Essengue, S., Fischer, S. M., & Pelling, J. C. (2007). Modulation of UVB‐induced and basal cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2) expression by apigenin in mouse keratinocytes: Role of USF transcription factors. Molecular Carcinogenesis: Published in Cooperation with the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 46(4), 303-314.
99. Wei, H., Tye, L., Bresnick, E., & Birt, D. F. (1990). Inhibitory effect of apigenin, a plant flavonoid, on epidermal ornithine decarboxylase and skin tumor promotion in mice. Cancer Research, 50(3), 499-502.
100. Wollina, U., Koch, A., Schönlebe, J., & Tchernev, G. (2017). Carcinosarcoma of skin (sarcomatoid carcinoma)-A rare non-melanoma slin cancer (Case Review). Georgian Medical News, 263, 7-10.
101. Wölfle, U., Esser, P. R., Simon-Haarhaus, B., Martin, S. F., Lademann, J., & Schempp, C. M. (2011). UVB-induced DNA damage, generation of reactive oxygen species, and inflammation are effectively attenuated by the flavonoid luteolin in vitro and in vivo. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 50(9), 1081-1093.
102. Wu, X., Elkin, E. E., & Marghoob, A. A. (2015). Burden of basal cell carcinoma in USA. Future Oncology, 11(22), 2967-2974.
103. Xu, K., Zhang, C., Li, Y., Xi, X., Zheng, L., Meng, M., Liu, T., Zhao, Y., & Li, W. (2019). Withaferin A suppresses skin tumor promotion by inhibiting proteasome-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 degradation. Translational Cancer Research, 8(6), 2449.
104. Yates, C. R., Bruno, E. J., & Yates, M. E. (2022). Tinospora cordifolia: A review of its immunomodulatory properties. Journal of Dietary Supplements, 19(2), 271-285.
105. Zhang, X., Chen, W., Guillermo, R., Chandrasekher, G., Kaushik, R. S., Young, A., Fahmy, H., & Dwivedi, C. (2010). Alpha-santalol, a chemopreventive agent against skin cancer, causes G2/M cell cycle arrest in both p53-mutated human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells and p53 wild-type human melanoma UACC-62 cells. BMC Research Notes, 3(1), 1-15.

License

Copyright (c) 2023 Aniqa Aniqa, Sarvnarinder Kaur, Shilpa Sadwal